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Third and last emperor of the Flavian dynasty, Domitian (51-96 CE) was the youngest son of Vespasian and most of his youth was spent in the shadow of his more accomplished brother Titus, who earned his renown during the First Jewish-Roman War. When his father became emperor at the end of the Year of the Four Emperors in 69 CE, Titus was given a great many offices while Domitian held honours but no responsibilities. This would go on for many years, until his brother, succeeding his father in 79 CE, himself died unexpectedly from illness in 81 CE. Domitian was suddenly declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard.<br/><br/> During his reign, Domitian strengthened the Roman economy, expanded the Empire's border defenses and initiated a massive building program to restore a debilitated Rome. Further wars were fought in Britain. Domitian ruled more autocratically than previous emperors, seeing himself as the new Augustus, and formed a cult of personality around himself, making him popular with the people but considered tyrannical by the Senate.<br/><br/> After 15 years in power, longer than any emperor since Tiberius, Domitian was assassinated in 96 CE by court officials. His death ended the Flavian dynasty and he was succeeded by his advisor Nerva, his memory condemned to oblivion by the Senate.
Marcia Furnilla (1st century CE) was born into a noble and distinguished family, claiming descent from Roman King Ancus Marcius. Furnilla was Titus' second and last wife, marrying him in 63 CE. Furnilla was described as a 'very well-connected' woman, and bore Titus a daughter in 64 CE, Julia Flavia. Like Titus' first marriage, his time with Furnilla was short, as Furnilla's family was connected to the opponents of Nero after the failure of the Pisonian conspiracy in 65 CE. Titus divorced her, not wanting to be connected with any of the potential plotters, taking their daughter with him.
Flavia Domitilla Major (1st century CE), also known as Domitilla the Elder, was the first wife of Vespasian. She was the daughter of Flavius Liberalis, a humble quaestor's clerk, and was a formal mistress to an African knight before her marriage to Vespasian. She married Vespasian some time around 38 CE, and was the mother of future emperors Titus and Domitian, as well as Domitilla the Younger, and grandmother of Saint Flavia Domitilla. She died before Vespasian became emperor, some time around 65 CE.
Aemilia Lepida (1st century CE) was the wife of Galba, with whom she bore two sons before her death. Galba was devoted to his wife and so was completely uninterested when Agrippina the Younger, fourth wife of Tiberius and mother of Nero, then a widow, made countless shameless advances on Galba, wishing for him to divorce Lepida and marry her instead. It is said that on one occasion, Lepida's mother publicly reprimanded Agrippina in public and slapped her in the face. Lepida died relatively young, and so did her sons, and his love for her meant that Galba never remarried.
The largest Roman imperial cameo to have survived, the Great Cameo of France is engraved with fwenty-four figures from the Julio-Claudian dynasty.</br/><br/> The upper levels of the cameo show deceased and/or deified members of the dynasty, such as Divus Augustus (Augustus Caesar), Drusus the Younger (son of Tiberius Caesar) and Drusus the Elder (brother of Tiberius Caesar). The middle tier shows Tiberius Caesar alongside his mother Livia Drusilla (wife of Augustus Caesar) and his designated heir Germanicus. Behind Tiberius and Livius are Claudius Caesar (who was emperor when the cameo was made) and his fourth wife Agrippina the Younger.
Natural son and heir of Emperor Vespasian, Titus was a member of the Flavian dynasty, the first Roman emperor to succeed his own biological father. Titus, like his father, had earned much renown as a military commander, especially during the First Jewish-Roman war.<br/><br/> When his father left to claim the imperial throne after Nero's death, Titus was left behind to end the Jewish rebellion, which occurred in 70 CE with the siege and sacking of Jerusalem. The Arch of Titus was built in honour of his destruction of the city. He was also known for his controversial relationship with the Jewish queen Berenice.<br/><br/> Under his father, her served as prefect of the Praetorian Guard, and he was known as a good emperor after his accession. As emperor, he is most endearingly known for his completion of the Colosseum, started by his father, and his efforts in relieving the destruction caused by eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE and a fire in Rome in 80 CE. Titus only served for two years before dying of a fever in 81 CE, and was deified by the Roman Senate before being succeeded by his younger brother, Domitian.
From an equestrian family that rose to senatorial rank under the Julio-Claudian dyansty, Vespasianus - as he was then called - earned much renown through his military record. He first served during the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 CE, and was later sent by Emperor Nero to conquer Judea in 66 CE, during the Jewish rebellion.<br/><br/> During his siege of Jerusalem, news came to him of Nero's suicide and the tumultuous civil war that happened afterwards, later known as the Year of the Four Emperors. When Vitellius became the third emperor in April 69, the Roman legions of Egypt and Judea declared Vespasian the new emperor. Marching to Rome, he defeated and executed Vitellius, becoming emperor and ending the Year of the Four Emperors.<br/><br/> He ruled the Roman empire for 10 years, building the Flavian Amphitheatre, known nowadays as the Roman Colosseum, as well as enacting various reforms to the empire. He died in 79 CE, and his son Titus became the next Roman emperor, starting the Flavian dynasty and making Vespasian the first emperor to be directly succeeded by his own natural son.
The third of the emperors to rule during the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors, Vitellius first started his career as Consul in 48 CE, and was eventually given command of the armies of Germania Inferior by Emperor Galba. From there he began his bid for power against Galba and the other claimants.<br/><br/> He successfully led a military revolution against Galba's successor Otho in 69 CE, marching into Rome and becoming Emperor, though he was never acknowledged as such in the entire Roman world. His men were said to be licentious and rough, with Rome becoming embroiled in massacres and riots, decadent feasts and gladiatorial shows. Vitellius himself was described as lazy and self-indulgent, an obese glutton and a hedonist.<br/><br/> In July 69 CE, Vitellius learned that the eastern provinces had declared a rival emperor, Commander Vespasian. Following more provinces declaring for Vespasian and mass desertions among his own adherents, Vitellius resigned as emperor in December 69 CE. He was executed by Vespasian's men upon their arrival to Rome. His reign lasted 8 months.
Born to a noble and ancient Etruscan lineage, Otho was one of the young nobles of Nero's court, said to be overly extravagant and reckless. His close friendship with Nero crumbled when his wife began an affair with the emperor and eventually divorced Otho, having Nero send Otho away to govern the distant province of Lusitania, where he would remain for ten years.<br/><br/> Otho followed Galba in his revolt against Nero, but his own personal ambitions led him to betray and overthrow Emperor Galba, purchasing the services of the Praetorian Guard and killing Galba. Otho was declared emperor, but his reign would be even briefer than Galba's.<br/><br/> Inheriting a revolution from Galba, Otho was forced to war against rival claimant to the throne Vitellius. After some of his army was defeated by the Vitellians, Otho decided to commit suicide rather than cause more deaths, even though he still had a substantial force willing to fight for him. He was only emperor for three months, and was the second emperor during the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors.
Born Servius Sulpicius Galba, Galba came from a noble and wealthy family, though he had no connection by birth and only a very remote connection by adoption to any of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Refusing encouragement by friends to make a bid for the empire after Caligula's assassination, Galba loyally served Claudius, and lived for most of Nero's reign in retirement.<br/><br/> However, in 68 CE, he was informed of Nero's intention to have him killed, and he defected from Nero to save himself. After Nero's suicide, Galba was named Caesar and killed many soldiers upon his approach to Rome for making demands of him.<br/><br/> Galba's reign lasted little more than seven months, his cruelty and sentencing of many to death without trial turning the people and especially the military and Praetorian guard against him. Many legions refused to swear loyalty and rebelled against Galba, and Galba was assassinated while riding out to confront them. His reign began what would be known as the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors.
Born Servius Sulpicius Galba, Galba came from a noble and wealthy family, though he had no connection by birth and only a very remote connection by adoption to any of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Refusing encouragement by friends to make a bid for the empire after Caligula's assassination, Galba loyally served Claudius, and lived for most of Nero's reign in retirement.<br/><br/> However, in 68 CE, he was informed of Nero's intention to have him killed, and he defected from Nero to save himself. After Nero's suicide, Galba was named Caesar and killed many soldiers upon his approach to Rome for making demands of him.<br/><br/> Galba's reign lasted little more than seven months, his cruelty and sentencing of many to death without trial turning the people and especially the military and Praetorian guard against him. Many legions refused to swear loyalty and rebelled against Galba, and Galba was assassinated while riding out to confront them. His reign began what would be known as the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors.
Born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero was the only son of Agrippina the Younger, who would later marry his great-uncle Emperor Claudius. Claudius adopted Nero and was made heir and successor alongside Claudius' own son Brittanicus. Nero acceded to the throne after Claudius' death in 54 CE, possibly poisoned at the hands of Nero's mother.<br/><br/> Nero's reign is infamous for his corruption, tyranny and extravagance, as well as his many executions, including that of his mother and the poisoning of his stepbrother Britannicus soon after the start of his rule. His most infamous mark on history however, is his presumed starting of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, which caused widespread destruction and was intentionally done to clear space for Nero's planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.<br/><br/> In 68 CE, Nero was driven from the throne by rebellion, and he committed suicide that same year. With his death came the the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, leading to the tumultuous period known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BCE) was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, especially the Western tradition. Unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Plato's entire œuvre is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years
Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BCE) was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, especially the Western tradition. Unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Plato's entire œuvre is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years
Natural son and heir of Emperor Vespasian, Titus was a member of the Flavian dynasty, the first Roman emperor to succeed his own biological father. Titus, like his father, had earned much renown as a military commander, especially during the First Jewish-Roman war.<br/><br/> When his father left to claim the imperial throne after Nero's death, Titus was left behind to end the Jewish rebellion, which occurred in 70 CE with the siege and sacking of Jerusalem. The Arch of Titus was built in honour of his destruction of the city. He was also known for his controversial relationship with the Jewish queen Berenice.<br/><br/> Under his father, her served as prefect of the Praetorian Guard, and he was known as a good emperor after his accession. As emperor, he is most endearingly known for his completion of the Colosseum, started by his father, and his efforts in relieving the destruction caused by eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE and a fire in Rome in 80 CE. Titus only served for two years before dying of a fever in 81 CE, and was deified by the Roman Senate before being succeeded by his younger brother, Domitian.
Aelia Paetina (1st century CE) was the second wife of Claudius Caesar, marrying him in 28 CE before he became emperor. They had one child together, Claudia Antonia, born in 30 CE. Claudius divorced her a year later in 31 CE, after her adoptive brother fell from power and was murdered. After Claudius' third wife Valeria Messalina was executed in 48 CE for trying to usurp the throne, it was suggested by some of his advisors that Claudius remarry Paetina, but ultimately Claudius married Agrippina the Younger instead.
Claudius was the first Roman emperor to be born outside of Italy, and he was ostracised and exempted from public office for much of his life due to slight deafness and being afflicted with a limp. It was his infirmity that would save him from the noble purges that occurred during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as he was not seen as a serious threat.<br/><br/> Due to being the last surviving man of the Julio-Claudian family, Claudius was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after their assassination of Caligula. Despite his only previous experience being sharing a consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37 CE, he proved to be a capable administrator, as well as an ambitious builder across the Empire. The conquest of Britain began under his reign, and his seeming vulnerability meant that Claudius often had to shore up his position, usually through the deaths of rival senators and nobles.<br/><br/> He was succeeded after his death in 54 CE by his adopted son, Nero.
Dura-Europos was a Hellenistic, Parthian and Roman border city built on an escarpment above the right bank of the Euphrates river. It is located near the village of Salhiye, in eastern Syria.<br/><br/> Dura-Europos is extremely important for archaeological reasons. As it was abandoned after its conquest in 256–7, nothing was built over it and no later building programs obscured the architectonic features of the ancient city. Its location on the edge of empires made for a co-mingling of cultural traditions, much of which was preserved under the city's ruins.
Born Tiberius Claudius Nero, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, he became step-son of Octavian (later to become Augustus, first emperor of Rome) after his mother was forced to divorce Nero and marry him.<br/><br/> Tiberius would eventually marry Augustus' daughter from his previous marriage, Julia the Elder, and later be adopted by Augustus, officially becoming a Julian, bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar.<br/><br/> In relations to the other emperors of this dynasty, Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus, grand-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of Claudius, and great-grand uncle of Nero.<br/><br/> Tiberius was one of Rome's greatest generals, with his conquest of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily, parts of Germania, creating the foundations for the empire's northern frontier. However, he came to be known as a dark, reclusive, and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him <i>tristissimus hominum</i>, 'the gloomiest of men'.
Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Caligula was the nephew and adopted son of Emperor Tiberius, making him part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He earned the nickname 'Caligula' (little solder's boot) while accompanying his father, Germanicus, during his campaigns in Germania.<br/><br/> His mother, Agrippina the Elder, became entangled in a deadly feud with Emperor Tiberius that resulted in the destruction of her family and leaving Caligula the sole male survivor. After Tiberius' death in 37 CE, Caligula succeeded his grand uncle as emperor. Surviving sources of his reign are few and far between, but he is often described as initially being a noble and moderate ruler before descending into tyranny, cruelty, sadism, extravagance and sexual perversity.<br/><br/> Caligula was eventually assassinated in 41 CE by a conspiracy of courtiers, senators and officers within his own Praetorian Guard, who murdered him and his family. Attempts by some of the conspirators to re-establish the Roman Republic were thwarted when the Praetorian Guard immediately decalared Caligula's uncle, Claudius, the new emperor.
Palmyra was an ancient city in Syria. It was an important city in central Syria, located in an oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus and 180 km southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor. It had long been a vital caravan city for travellers crossing the Syrian desert and was known as the Bride of the Desert.<br/><br/> The earliest documented reference to the city by its Semitic name Tadmor, Tadmur or Tudmur (which means 'the town that repels' in Amorite and 'the indomitable town' in Aramaic) is recorded in Babylonian tablets found in Mari.<br/><br/> The Temple of Bel is an ancient stone ruin located in Palmyra, Syria. The temple, consecrated to the Semitic god Bel, worshipped at Palmyra in triad with the lunar god Aglibol and the sun god Yarhibol, formed the center of religious life in Palmyra and was dedicated in 32 CE.
Allat, the Arab goddess of war, is the central figure on this stone relief from Hatra (once covered with thin sheets of gold or silver). She is flanked by two smaller female figures, most probably her daughters al-Izza and Al-Manat, with right hands raised up, palms forward, in the typical Hatrene manner indicating benediction or respectful prayer.<br/><br/> Although these deities are of Arab origin, Allat is shown with the attributes of the Greek goddess Athena: a gorgon head on her breastplate, armed with a spear, a helmet, and carrying a shield marked with her lunar symbol. The eyes and the costume are rendered in the local Parthian fashion.<br/><br/> The goddesses are perched on a lion - Al-Lat's sacred animal - portrayed with an extravagant flame-like mane.
Hatra was an ancient city in the Ninawa Governorate and al-Jazira region of Iraq. It was known as al-Hadr, and was in the ancient Persian province of Khvarvaran. The city lies 290 km (180 mi) northwest of Baghdad and 110 km (68 mi) southwest of Mosul.<br/><br/> On 7 March 2015, various sources including Iraqi officials reported that the militant group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) had begun demolishing the ruins of Hatra. Video released by ISIL the next month showed destruction of the monuments.
Palmyra was an ancient city in Syria. It was an important city in central Syria, located in an oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus and 180 km southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor. It had long been a vital caravan city for travellers crossing the Syrian desert and was known as the Bride of the Desert.<br/><br/> The earliest documented reference to the city by its Semitic name Tadmor, Tadmur or Tudmur (which means 'the town that repels' in Amorite and 'the indomitable town' in Aramaic) is recorded in Babylonian tablets found in Mari.<br/><br/> The Temple of Bel is an ancient stone ruin located in Palmyra, Syria. The temple, consecrated to the Semitic god Bel, worshipped at Palmyra in triad with the lunar god Aglibol and the sun god Yarhibol, formed the center of religious life in Palmyra and was dedicated in 32 CE.
Claudius was the first Roman emperor to be born outside of Italy, and he was ostracised and exempted from public office for much of his life due to slight deafness and being afflicted with a limp. It was his infirmity that would save him from the noble purges that occurred during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as he was not seen as a serious threat.<br/><br/> Due to being the last surviving man of the Julio-Claudian family, Claudius was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after their assassination of Caligula. Despite his only previous experience being sharing a consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37 CE, he proved to be a capable administrator, as well as an ambitious builder across the Empire. The conquest of Britain began under his reign, and his seeming vulnerability meant that Claudius often had to shore up his position, usually through the deaths of rival senators and nobles.<br/><br/> He was succeeded after his death in 54 CE by his adopted son, Nero.
The Moon God Aglibol, the Supreme God Beelshamen, the Sun God Malakbel, found at Bir Wereb, Wadi Miyah, near Palmyra.<br/><br/> Palmyra was an ancient city in Syria. It was an important city in central Syria, located in an oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus and 180 km southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor. It had long been a vital caravan city for travellers crossing the Syrian desert and was known as the Bride of the Desert.<br/><br/> The earliest documented reference to the city by its Semitic name Tadmor, Tadmur or Tudmur (which means 'the town that repels' in Amorite and 'the indomitable town' in Aramaic) is recorded in Babylonian tablets found in Mari.
Third and last emperor of the Flavian dyansty, Domitian (51-96 CE) was the youngest son of Vespasian and most of his youth was spent in the shadow of his more accomplished brother Titus, who earned his renown during the First Jewish-Roman War. When his father became emperor at the end of the Year of the Four Emperors in 69 CE, Titus was given a great many offices while Domitian held honours but no responsibilities. This would go on for many years, until his brother, succeeding his father in 79 CE, himself died unexpectedly from illness in 81 CE. Domitian was suddenly declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard.<br/><br/> During his reign, Domitian strengthened the Roman economy, expanded the Empire's border defenses and initiated a massive building program to restore the debilitated Rome. Further wars were fought in Britain. Domitian ruled more autocratically than previous emperors, seeing himself as the new Augustus, and formed a cult of personality around himself, making him popular with the people but considered tyrannical by the Senate.<br/><br/> After 15 years in power, longer than any emperor since Tiberius, Domitian was assassinated in 96 CE by court officials. His death ended the Flavian dynasty and he was succeeded by his advisor Nerva, his memory condemned to oblivion by the Senate.
Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Caligula was the nephew and adopted son of Emperor Tiberius, making him part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He earned the nickname 'Caligula' (little solder's boot) while accompanying his father, Germanicus, during his campaigns in Germania.<br/><br/> His mother, Agrippina the Elder, became entangled in a deadly feud with Emperor Tiberius that resulted in the destruction of her family and leaving Caligula the sole male survivor. After Tiberius' death in 37 CE, Caligula succeeded his grand uncle as emperor. Surviving sources of his reign are few and far between, but he is often described as initially being a noble and moderate ruler before descending into tyranny, cruelty, sadism, extravagance and sexual perversity.<br/><br/> Caligula was eventually assassinated in 41 CE by a conspiracy of courtiers, senators and officers within his own Praetorian Guard, who murdered him and his family. Attempts by some of the conspirators to re-establish the Roman Republic were thwarted when the Praetorian Guard immediately decalared Caligula's uncle, Claudius, the new emperor.
South Arabia as a general term refers to several regions as currently recognized, in chief the Republic of Yemen; yet it has historically also included Najran, Jizan, and 'Asir which are presently in Saudi Arabia, and Dhofar presently in Oman. The frontiers of South Arabia as linguistically conceived would include the historic peoples speaking the related South Arabian languages as well as neighboring dialects of Arabic, and their descendants. Anciently there was a South Arabian alphabet, which was borrowed by Ethiopia. South Arabia as generally conceived would include the lands inhabited by peoples partaking of its distinctive traditions and culture, which overlap recently demarcated political boundaries.<br/><br/> Yemen or al-yaman means 'the south'. One etymology derives Yemen from yamin the 'right side' as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise; yet this etymology is considered suspect. Another derives Yemen from yumn meaning 'felicity' as the region is fertile; indeed the Romans called it Arabia Felix. In an ancient, traditional Arabian genealogy, the people of the peninsula are divided between north and south, those of the north descending from Ishmael and Adnan (from whom Muhammad descended), and those of South Arabia being the descendants of Qahtan or Joktan (Yoqtan) and Jokshan.<br/><br/> Three thousand years ago several different state entities occupied the region of South Arabia, including M'ain, Qataban, Hadhramaut and Saba.In those ancient times South Arabia claimed several notable features, e.g., the famous dam at Marib, the cosmopolitan incense trade, as well as the legendary Queen of Sheba. Two thousand years ago the Himyarites became the masters of South Arabia, remaining for several centuries until displaced by the armies of Axum which landed from nearby Ethiopia; rule by the Ethiopians was followed by that of Persia under the Sassanids, who also arrived by sea. A half-century later, in the year 638 C.E., the region became Muslim.
Qataban (Arabic,مملكة قتبان) was one of the ancient Yemeni kingdoms. Its heartland was located in the Baihan valley. Like some other Southern Arabian kingdoms it gained great wealth from the trade of frankincense and myrrh incense which was burned at altars. The capital of Qataban was named Timna and was located on the trade route which passed through the other kingdoms of Hadramaut, Sheba and Ma'in. The chief deity of the Qatabanians was Amm, or 'Uncle' and the people called themselves the 'Children of Amm'.<br/><br/> Qataban was the most prominent Yemeni kingdom in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BCE, when its ruler held the title of the South Arabian hegemon, MKRB.<br/><br/> Sculpted stone heads, mounted on bases and placed in the vestibules of burial chambers, were common in the cemetery of Timna', capital of the kingdom of Qataban. The name of the woman represented here is Helqeb, as inscribed on the base.
The Temple of Bel, consecrated to the Semitic god Bel, worshipped at Palmyra as Malakbel, formed the center of religious life in Palmyra and was dedicated in 32 AD.<br/><br/> Palmyra was an ancient city in Syria. It was an important city in central Syria, located in an oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus and 180 km southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor. It had long been a vital caravan city for travellers crossing the Syrian desert and was known as the Bride of the Desert. The earliest documented reference to the city by its Semitic name Tadmor, Tadmur or Tudmur (which means "the town that repels" in Amorite and "the indomitable town" in Aramaic) is recorded in Babylonian tablets found in Mari.
The Temple of Bel, consecrated to the Semitic god Bel, worshipped at Palmyra as Malakbel, formed the center of religious life in Palmyra and was dedicated in 32 AD.<br/><br/> Palmyra was an ancient city in Syria. It was an important city in central Syria, located in an oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus and 180 km southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor. It had long been a vital caravan city for travellers crossing the Syrian desert and was known as the Bride of the Desert. The earliest documented reference to the city by its Semitic name Tadmor, Tadmur or Tudmur (which means "the town that repels" in Amorite and "the indomitable town" in Aramaic) is recorded in Babylonian tablets found in Mari.
Petra was first established as a city by the Nabataean Arabs in the 4th century BC, and owed its birth and prosperity to the fact that it was the only place with clear and abundant water between the Hijaz trading centres of Mecca and Medina, and Palestine.<br/><br/> Hewn directly into the Nubian sandstone ridges of the south Jordanian desert, it seems probable that - given its excellent defensive position and good water supplies - Petra has been continually occupied from as early as Paleolithic times. It is thought to be mentioned in the Bible as Sela, a mountain fortress captured by Amaziah, King of Judah, in the 9th century BC, when the defenders were hurled to their deaths from the summit, and as many as 10,000 people died.<br/><br/> The city's Latin name, Petra - literally, 'Rock' - probably replaced the biblical name Sela at the time of the Roman conquest some 1,900 years ago. Today, in Arabic, the ancient site is still called Batraa, though the valley in which it is situated is known as Wadi Musa - 'The Valley of Moses' - being one of the places where, according to semitic tradition, the Prophet Moses struck a rock and water gushed forth. Truly Petra is steeped in history.
Petra was first established as a city by the Nabataean Arabs in the 4th century BC, and owed its birth and prosperity to the fact that it was the only place with clear and abundant water between the Hijaz trading centres of Mecca and Medina, and Palestine.<br/><br/> Hewn directly into the Nubian sandstone ridges of the south Jordanian desert, it seems probable that - given its excellent defensive position and good water supplies - Petra has been continually occupied from as early as Paleolithic times. It is thought to be mentioned in the Bible as Sela, a mountain fortress captured by Amaziah, King of Judah, in the 9th century BC, when the defenders were hurled to their deaths from the summit, and as many as 10,000 people died.<br/><br/> The city's Latin name, Petra - literally, 'Rock' - probably replaced the biblical name Sela at the time of the Roman conquest some 1,900 years ago. Today, in Arabic, the ancient site is still called Batraa, though the valley in which it is situated is known as Wadi Musa - 'The Valley of Moses' - being one of the places where, according to semitic tradition, the Prophet Moses struck a rock and water gushed forth. Truly Petra is steeped in history.
The Roman mythographer Julius Pollux, writing in the 2nd century BCE, asserts (Onomasticon I, 45–49) that Purple Tyrian dye was first discovered by Heracles, or rather, by his dog, whose mouth was stained purple from chewing on snails along the coast of the Levant.
A Sarmatian golden dagger and scabbard studded with turquoise and carnelian, 1st century CE, from Datschi Kurgan, near Rostov. Azov Museum. Image released to the press in 2009.<br/><br/> The Scythians were an ancient Iranian people of horse-riding nomadic pastoralists who throughout Classical Antiquity dominated the Pontic-Caspian steppe, known at the time as Scythia. By Late Antiquity the closely-related Sarmatians came to dominate the Scythians in the west.
Sarmatian golden neck circlet, 1st century CE, studded with turquoise, coral and glass from the Chochlatch Kurgan, Novocherkask. Image released to the press in 2009.<br/><br/> The Scythians were an ancient Iranian people of horse-riding nomadic pastoralists who throughout Classical Antiquity dominated the Pontic-Caspian steppe, known at the time as Scythia. By Late Antiquity the closely-related Sarmatians came to dominate the Scythians in the west.
Dry measures are units of volume used to measure bulk commodities which are not gas or liquid. They are typically used in agriculture, agronomy, and commodity markets to measure grain, dried beans, and dried and fresh fruit (e.g. a peck of apples is a retail unit); formerly also salt pork and fish. They are also used in fishing for clams, crabs, etc. and formerly for many other substances.
Palmyra was an ancient city in Syria. It was an important city in central Syria, located in an oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus and 180 km southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor. It had long been a vital caravan city for travellers crossing the Syrian desert and was known as the Bride of the Desert.<br/><br/> The earliest documented reference to the city by its Semitic name Tadmor, Tadmur or Tudmur (which means 'the town that repels' in Amorite and 'the indomitable town' in Aramaic) is recorded in Babylonian tablets found in Mari.<br/><br/> The Temple of Bel is an ancient stone ruin located in Palmyra, Syria. The temple, consecrated to the Semitic god Bel, worshipped at Palmyra in triad with the lunar god Aglibol and the sun god Yarhibol, formed the center of religious life in Palmyra and was dedicated in 32 CE.
The ruins of Thaj can be seen about 80 km west of Al-Jubail. It is a small village situated beside a dry lakebed. The archaeological excavations undertaken by the Danish Mission in 1967 and those carried out by the Saudi Deputy Ministry of Antiquities in 1985 revealed Thaj as a complete buried city surrounded by a strong wall.<br/><br/> Much of the wall is damaged, but one section of about 900 meters is in good condition. Several mounds, walls, housing foundations, pottery shards, glass, necklaces and earrings, decorative objects, clay pots and figurines have been recovered from the site. It is possible that Thaj was established during the Greek Seleucid period, possibly around early third-century BCE.
The economy of the Anuradhapura Kingdom was based mainly on agriculture.<br/><br/> Currency was often used for settling judicial fines, taxes and payments for goods or services. However, remuneration for services to the king, officials and temples were often made in the form of land revenue.<br/><br/> The oldest coins found at Anuradhapura date up to 200 BCE. These earliest coins were punch marked rectangular pieces of silver known as kahavanu. These eventually became circular in shape, which were in turn followed by die struck coins. Uncoined metals, particularly gold and silver, were used for trading as well. Patterns of elephants, horses, swastika and Dharmacakra were commonly imprinted on the coins of this period.
South Arabia as a general term refers to several regions as currently recognized, in chief the Republic of Yemen; yet it has historically also included Najran, Jizan, and 'Asir which are presently in Saudi Arabia, and Dhofar presently in Oman. The frontiers of South Arabia as linguistically conceived would include the historic peoples speaking the related South Arabian languages as well as neighboring dialects of Arabic, and their descendants. Anciently there was a South Arabian alphabet, which was borrowed by Ethiopia. South Arabia as generally conceived would include the lands inhabited by peoples partaking of its distinctive traditions and culture, which overlap recently demarcated political boundaries.<br/><br/> Yemen or al-yaman means 'the south'. One etymology derives Yemen from yamin the 'right side' as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise; yet this etymology is considered suspect. Another derives Yemen from yumn meaning 'felicity' as the region is fertile; indeed the Romans called it Arabia Felix. In an ancient, traditional Arabian genealogy, the people of the peninsula are divided between north and south, those of the north descending from Ishmael and Adnan (from whom Muhammad descended), and those of South Arabia being the descendants of Qahtan or Joktan (Yoqtan) and Jokshan.
South Arabia as a general term refers to several regions as currently recognized, in chief the Republic of Yemen; yet it has historically also included Najran, Jizan, and 'Asir which are presently in Saudi Arabia, and Dhofar presently in Oman. The frontiers of South Arabia as linguistically conceived would include the historic peoples speaking the related South Arabian languages as well as neighboring dialects of Arabic, and their descendants. Anciently there was a South Arabian alphabet, which was borrowed by Ethiopia. South Arabia as generally conceived would include the lands inhabited by peoples partaking of its distinctive traditions and culture, which overlap recently demarcated political boundaries.<br/><br/> Yemen or al-yaman means 'the south'. One etymology derives Yemen from yamin the 'right side' as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise; yet this etymology is considered suspect. Another derives Yemen from yumn meaning 'felicity' as the region is fertile; indeed the Romans called it Arabia Felix. In an ancient, traditional Arabian genealogy, the people of the peninsula are divided between north and south, those of the north descending from Ishmael and Adnan (from whom Muhammad descended), and those of South Arabia being the descendants of Qahtan or Joktan (Yoqtan) and Jokshan.<br/><br/> Three thousand years ago several different state entities occupied the region of South Arabia, including M'ain, Qataban, Hadhramaut and Saba.In those ancient times South Arabia claimed several notable features, e.g., the famous dam at Marib, the cosmopolitan incense trade, as well as the legendary Queen of Sheba. Two thousand years ago the Himyarites became the masters of South Arabia, remaining for several centuries until displaced by the armies of Axum which landed from nearby Ethiopia; rule by the Ethiopians was followed by that of Persia under the Sassanids, who also arrived by sea. A half-century later, in the year 638, the region became Muslim.
South Arabia as a general term refers to several regions as currently recognized, in chief the Republic of Yemen; yet it has historically also included Najran, Jizan, and 'Asir which are presently in Saudi Arabia, and Dhofar presently in Oman. The frontiers of South Arabia as linguistically conceived would include the historic peoples speaking the related South Arabian languages as well as neighboring dialects of Arabic, and their descendants. Anciently there was a South Arabian alphabet, which was borrowed by Ethiopia. South Arabia as generally conceived would include the lands inhabited by peoples partaking of its distinctive traditions and culture, which overlap recently demarcated political boundaries.<br/><br/> Yemen or al-yaman means 'the south'. One etymology derives Yemen from yamin the 'right side' as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise; yet this etymology is considered suspect. Another derives Yemen from yumn meaning 'felicity' as the region is fertile; indeed the Romans called it Arabia Felix. In an ancient, traditional Arabian genealogy, the people of the peninsula are divided between north and south, those of the north descending from Ishmael and Adnan (from whom Muhammad descended), and those of South Arabia being the descendants of Qahtan or Joktan (Yoqtan) and Jokshan.<br/><br/> Three thousand years ago several different state entities occupied the region of South Arabia, including M'ain, Qataban, Hadhramaut and Saba.In those ancient times South Arabia claimed several notable features, e.g., the famous dam at Marib, the cosmopolitan incense trade, as well as the legendary Queen of Sheba. Two thousand years ago the Himyarites became the masters of South Arabia, remaining for several centuries until displaced by the armies of Axum which landed from nearby Ethiopia; rule by the Ethiopians was followed by that of Persia under the Sassanids, who also arrived by sea. A half-century later, in the year 638, the region became Muslim.